Chinese Civilisation
(中华文明)

AI-generated illustration on Shennong and Huangdi facing each other along the Yellow River​​

Source: OpenAI (2005)

The history of Chinese civilization was recorded by the ancient historian Sima Qian (司馬遷), who lived from 145 BCE to 86 BCE. He was considered a genius of his time, as the facts he compiled in his Records of the Grand Historian (史记 or 太史公书) have been confirmed as accurate by modern archaeologists.
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Li X. Q. (2011), a professor at Tsinghua University, states:
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“Sima Qian’s book presents Chinese history in a very broad way. It gives Yandi, and particularly Huangdi, a lot of attention -- regarding them as the beginning of everything… He traveled extensively to acquire first-hand information to write the book. His record clearly shows that Chinese civilization began with the Huangdi era.” (Luo, Yan, & Wang, 2011a)
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The history of Chinese civilization is believed to have begun around 5,000 years ago, as evidenced by ancient artifacts discovered by archaeologists in recent decades.
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It all began with various groups of people who lived along the tributaries of the Yellow River (黄河), the second-longest river in China and the fifth-longest in the world. The river originates from the Bayankala Mountains (巴颜喀拉山) in Qinghai Province in the north, flowing approximately 4,000 kilometers to Northeast China, where it empties into the Bohai Sea (渤海; Bóhǎi), facing the Korean Peninsula. Often referred to as the "mother of Chinese civilization," the Yellow River has sustained millions of lives. Its continuous flow carries millions of tonnes of water and minerals daily, making the surrounding land fertile for farming. This fertile region became known as the Central Plains.
Yan (2011), a professor at Peking University, notes:
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“A huge number of granaries for storing grain were found in Hebei. Agricultural produce such as corn, maize, and millet was plentiful in the Yellow River region. These grain species established the foundation for the development of culture in Northern China.”
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The area where the Yellow Emperor (黄帝; Huángdì) once operated was along the Yǐ Jī Shuǐ Chéng (以姬水成), now known as Shǎnxī Wǔgōng Qī Shuǐ Hé (陕西武功漆水河; Wǔgōng County, Shǎnxī Province, Qī Shuǐ River). Another group, led by Emperor Yan (炎帝; Yándì), lived around Yǐ Jiāng Shuǐ Chéng (以姜水成), now Shǎnxī Bǎojī Qīng Jiāng Hé (陕西宝鸡清姜河; Bǎojī County, Shǎnxī Province, Qīng Jiāng River).
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The literal translation of “Jiāng Shuǐ” (姜水) is “Ginger Water,” possibly due to the river’s ginger-like color. According to some Chinese texts, "Jiāng" (姜) was the family name of Emperor Yan. Others interpret “Yǐ Jiāng” to mean “Upper River,” since “Yǐ” (以) could imply "upper," and the character 姜 (ginger) sounds similar to 江 (river). In Chinese, the word “river” can be expressed in three different ways: 支流 (zhīliú, tributary), 江 (jiāng), and 河 (hé).
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Today, the Yellow River bears little resemblance to its ancient form. Industrialization and pollution have significantly damaged some of its tributaries.
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Yándì (炎帝), meaning "Emperor of Fire," was renowned for his expertise in farming techniques and knowledge of medicinal plants. He pioneered grain agriculture, greatly improving the well-being of his people. In recognition, he was honored with the divine title Shénnóng (神農), or "God of Farms" (Dharmananda, S.). In art, Shénnóng is often portrayed as a giant man with two horns.
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Shénnóng is also regarded as the founder of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). His work is referenced in the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon (黃帝內經; Huángdì Nèijīng), which was later recompiled by Li Shizhen into the Shénnóng Běncǎo Jīng (神农本草经), or Shénnóng’s Compendium of Materia Medica -- an encyclopedia of herbal medicine considered essential reading for all TCM practitioners.
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In his honor, both Shénnóng Shān (神农山; Shénnóng Mountain) and Shénnóng Miào (神农庙; Shénnóng Temple) were dedicated to him.
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While Huángdì (黄帝) and his people resided east of the Yellow River, Yándì (炎帝) lived along the river’s northern and southern banks. 
 
One Mountain, One Tiger
Sok geh swo, beh lai wu noon nau lau hoe
(一山不容二虎; Yī shān bù róng èr hǔ)
"One mountain cannot contain two tigers."
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Whether due to natural order or societal structure, history has repeatedly shown that it is rare to have two sovereigns, presidents, or prime ministers coexist peacefully. This has been true since the earliest days of Chinese civilization.
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Eventually, Huángdì and Yándì came into conflict over control of their territory. This led to the famous Battle of Bǎnquán (阪泉之战), in which Yándì was defeated. Following this, the two groups merged into one.
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There were two other formidable groups in the region during that time: the Miáo Mán Jítuán (苗蛮集团) and the Dōng Yí Jítuán (东夷集团). In recent decades, archaeologists have uncovered evidence of the existence of even more early tribal groups.
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When Yándì (炎帝) attempted to expand into the fertile Central Plains, he encountered fierce resistance from the Jiǔ Lí tribe (九黎), led by their powerful leader Chīyóu (蚩尤). The Jiǔ Lí tribe was part of the Miáo Mán Jítuán (苗蛮集团). Unable to defeat them alone, Yándì sought the help of Huángdì (黄帝), and the two joined forces to confront this common enemy.
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The ensuing conflict became known as the Battle of Zhuōlù (涿鹿之战). Present-day Zhuōlù (涿鹿) is located in Zhāngjiākǒu City (张家口市), Hebei Province (河北省; Héběi Shěng), on the outskirts of Beijing (北京; Běijīng).
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The combined forces of Huángdì and Yándì were victorious. Chīyóu was killed in battle, and the Jiǔ Lí tribe was assimilated into the newly unified group. According to Professor Chen, this event illustrates one of the defining strengths of Chinese civilization: integration. Through the merging of economies, politics, and cultures from different groups, Chinese civilization grew stronger and more cohesive over time.
 
The conquest of the Jiǔ Lí tribe greatly expanded the influence of Huángdì and Yándì. Their united force, often referred to as the Yán-Huáng Coalition, continued to integrate other groups across the region. In the end, Huángdì went down in history as the legendary Yellow Emperor, a unifying figure at the heart of Chinese identity. This laid the foundation for all Chinese being called the Yánhuáng Zǐsūn (炎黄子孙), the descendants of Yándì and Huángdì.
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​The site of the Battle of Bǎnquán (阪泉之战) is also located in present-day Zhāngjiākǒu, Hebei Province, northwest of Beijing. Today, it is a historical area featuring ski resorts and tourist facilities.
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Professor Yan of Peking University explains that Sima Qian documented many of the achievements of Huángdì, and archaeological findings have confirmed details from that era. From this perspective, the legendary figure of the Yellow Emperor was not just a myth, but a historical reality. Since then, the Chinese people have regarded themselves as descendants of Huángdì and Yándì. This shared heritage has become a cornerstone of Chinese cultural identity and national unity (Luo, Yan, & Wang, 2011c).
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Some historians believe that Chīyóu (蚩尤), said to have lived between 206 BCE and 220 BCE, was a mythological figure. Ancient texts describe him as a supernatural king with many eyes, multiple arms, and a bronze head. However, an image of Chīyóu was discovered in a Han dynasty tomb, accompanied by an inscription affirming his existence. He was worshipped by his people -- some of whom are believed to be the ancestors of today’s Hmong, an ethnic group still residing in the mountainous regions of China, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
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​The unity of Huángdì and Yándì is widely regarded as the cornerstone of Chinese culture, forming a unifying thread that binds the nation together (Yan, 2011b). Their conquest of the Central Plains eventually paved the way for the rise of China’s first dynasty -- the Xia dynasty (夏朝; c. 2070–1600 BCE), led by the legendary King Yu the Great (大禹). He is credited with successfully controlling the catastrophic floods that had long plagued the region, laying the foundation for stable governance and agricultural prosperity.
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Note: There are varying schools of thought regarding the Xia dynasty’s status as the first dynasty, as there is a lack of direct archaeological evidence to fully support it.
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