AI-generated illustration on Shennong and Huangdi aka Xuanyuan (轩辕), facing each other along the Yellow River​​

Source: OpenAI (2005)

The History of Chinese Civilization as Recorded by Sima Qian

 

The history of Chinese civilization was recorded by the ancient historian Sima Qian (司馬遷), who lived from approximately 145 BCE to 86 BCE. He was considered a genius of his time, and the facts he compiled in his Records of the Grand Historian (史記 or 太史公書) have, in some cases, been confirmed as accurate by modern archaeologists—most notably the existence of the Shang dynasty, which Sima Qian recorded and which oracle bone inscriptions later corroborated. However, the earliest figures in his narrative, such as Huangdi and Yandi, belong to the realm of legend and are not directly confirmed by archaeological evidence.

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The Historical Record: Sima Qian and the Traditional Accounts

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Li X. Q. (2011), a professor at Tsinghua University, states:

 

"Sima Qian's book presents Chinese history in a very broad way. It gives Yandi, and particularly Huangdi, a lot of attention—regarding them as the beginning of everything… He traveled extensively to acquire first-hand information to write the book. His record clearly shows that Chinese civilization began with the Huangdi era." (Luo, Yan, & Wang, 2011a)

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This reflects the traditional Chinese historiographical view, which places the origin of Chinese civilization in the era of Huangdi. Modern archaeology, however, traces the origins of complex societies in the Yellow River region to Neolithic cultures such as Yangshao (c. 5000–3000 BCE) and Longshan (c. 3000–1900 BCE), and to the Bronze Age Erlitou culture (c. 1900–1500 BCE). The traditional date of "around 5,000 years ago" for the beginning of Chinese civilization corresponds broadly to this archaeological horizon, though the specific figures of Yandi and Huangdi remain legendary.

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The Yellow River and the Early Peoples

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It all began with various groups of people who lived along the tributaries of the Yellow River (黃河), the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world. The river originates from the Bayankala Mountains (巴顏喀拉山) in Qinghai Province in the north, flowing approximately 5,464 kilometers through nine provinces before emptying into the Bohai Sea (渤海; Bóhǎi) in Shandong Province. Often referred to as the "mother of Chinese civilization," the Yellow River has sustained millions of lives. Its continuous flow carries millions of tonnes of water and minerals daily, making the surrounding land fertile for farming. This fertile region became known as the Central Plains.

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Yan (2011), a professor at Peking University, notes:

 

"A huge number of granaries for storing grain were found in Hebei. Agricultural produce such as millet, wheat, and rice was plentiful in the Yellow River region. These grain species established the foundation for the development of culture in Northern China."

 

(Note: The original source's mention of "corn" and "maize" is anachronistic—these are New World crops introduced to China after the 16th century CE.)

 

According to the Guoyu (國語), the Yellow Emperor (aka Xuanyuan, 轩辕) and his people lived by the Ji River (以姬水成)—that is, he grew up along what is now the Qī Shuǐ River (漆水河) in Wǔgōng County, Shǎnxī Province. The Yan Emperor and his people lived along the Jiang River (以姜水成), now the Qīng Jiāng River (清姜河) in Bǎojī, Shǎnxī Province.

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The Jiāng River (姜水) is named after the Jiāng (姜) clan, the lineage of the Yan Emperor. The character 姜 also means "ginger," but the river name refers to the clan, not the spice.

 

Today, the Yellow River bears little resemblance to its ancient form. Industrialization and pollution have significantly damaged some of its tributaries.

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Yandi and Shennong: The Merged Tradition

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In the earliest texts, Yandi (炎帝) and Shennong (神農) appear as distinct figures. Yandi, meaning "Flame Emperor," was a tribal leader associated with fire. He was the contemporary and rival of Huangdi. Shennong, meaning "Divine Farmer," was a cultural hero credited with teaching agriculture, tasting medicinal herbs, and establishing markets.

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In later tradition—particularly from the Han dynasty onward—the two were identified as one, and the compound title "Yan Emperor Shennong" (炎帝神農) became the norm. This is the version most people know today: Yandi, also called Shennong, the Divine Farmer, who pioneered grain agriculture and Chinese herbal medicine.

 

Thus, Shennong is traditionally associated with the origins of Chinese herbal medicine. The Shennong Bencao Jing (神農本草經), or Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica, is an ancient Chinese pharmacological text traditionally attributed to Shennong. It became one of the foundational works of traditional Chinese medicine. Centuries later, Li Shizhen (李時珍) compiled the monumental Bencao Gangmu (本草綱目), or Compendium of Materia Medica, which greatly expanded the body of knowledge on medicinal substances.

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In his honor, both Shénnóng Shān (神農山; Shénnóng Mountain) and Shénnóng Miào (神農廟; Shénnóng Temple) were dedicated to him.

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In art, Shennong was portrayed as a giant man with two horns.

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One Mountain, One Tiger

Sok geh swo, beh lai wu noon nau lau hoe
(一山不容二虎; Yī shān bù róng èr hǔ)
"One mountain cannot contain two tigers."

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Huangdi, Yandi, and the Battles of Banquan and Zhuolu

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Whether due to natural order or societal structure, history has repeatedly shown that it is rare to have two sovereigns, presidents, or prime ministers coexist peacefully. This has been true since the earliest days of Chinese civilization.

 

Eventually, Huángdì and Yándì came into conflict over control of their territory. This led to the famous Battle of Bǎnquán (阪泉之戰), in which Yándì was defeated. Following this, the two groups merged into one, with Yándì's followers incorporated into Huángdì's coalition.

 

There were two other formidable groups in the region during that time: the Miáo Mán Jítuán (苗蠻集團) and the Dōng Yí Jítuán (東夷集團). In recent decades, archaeologists have uncovered evidence of the existence of even more early tribal groups.

 

When the Jiǔ Lí tribe (九黎), led by their powerful leader Chīyóu (蚩尤), threatened the region, the combined forces of Huángdì and the former followers of Yándì confronted them. The Jiǔ Lí tribe was part of the Miáo Mán Jítuán (苗蠻集團).

 

The ensuing conflict became known as the Battle of Zhuōlù (涿鹿之戰). Present-day Zhuōlù (涿鹿) is located in Zhāngjiākǒu City (張家口市), Hebei Province (河北省; Héběi Shěng), on the outskirts of Beijing (北京; Běijīng).

 

The combined forces of Huángdì and Yándì were victorious. Chīyóu was killed in battle, and the Jiǔ Lí tribe was assimilated into the newly unified group. According to Professor Chen, this event illustrates one of the defining strengths of Chinese civilization: integration. Through the merging of economies, politics, and cultures from different groups, Chinese civilization grew stronger and more cohesive over time.

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The conquest of the Jiǔ Lí tribe greatly expanded the influence of Huángdì and Yándì. Their united force, often referred to as the Yán-Huáng Coalition, continued to integrate other groups across the region. In the end, Huángdì went down in history as the legendary Yellow Emperor, a unifying figure at the heart of Chinese identity.

 

This tradition gave rise to the enduring expression Yánhuáng Zǐsūn (炎黃子孫), meaning "descendants of Yándì and Huángdì." The expression has long been used in Chinese historical and cultural discourse to describe a shared ancestral heritage and has become an important symbol of Chinese cultural identity.

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The site of the Battle of Bǎnquán (阪泉之戰) is also located in present-day Zhāngjiākǒu, Hebei Province, northwest of Beijing. Today, it is a historical area featuring ski resorts and tourist facilities.

 

Professor Yan of Peking University explains that Sima Qian documented many of the achievements of Huángdì, and some archaeological findings have confirmed details from that era. From this perspective, the legendary figure of the Yellow Emperor is regarded not just as a myth, but as reflecting a historical reality. Since then, the Chinese people have regarded themselves as descendants of Huángdì and Yándì. This shared heritage has become a cornerstone of Chinese cultural identity and national unity (Luo, Yan, & Wang, 2011c).

 

Some historians believe that Chīyóu (蚩尤), a legendary figure from the pre-dynastic era (traditionally dated to around 2700–2600 BCE), was purely mythological. Ancient texts describe him as a supernatural king with many eyes, multiple arms, and a bronze head. However, an image of Chīyóu was discovered in a Han dynasty tomb, accompanied by an inscription affirming his existence. He was worshipped by his people—some of whom are believed by some scholars and by Hmong oral tradition to be the ancestors of today's Hmong, an ethnic group still residing in the mountainous regions of China, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The historical link between the ancient Jiuli and modern Hmong communities remains a subject of scholarly debate.

 

From the Yan-Huang Tradition to the Xia Dynasty

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The unity of Huángdì and Yándì is widely regarded as the cornerstone of Chinese culture, forming a unifying thread that binds the nation together (Yan, 2011b). Their conquest of the Central Plains eventually paved the way for the rise of China's first dynasty—the Xia dynasty (夏朝; c. 2070–1600 BCE), led by the legendary King Yu the Great (大禹). He is credited with successfully controlling the catastrophic floods that had long plagued the region, laying the foundation for stable governance and agricultural prosperity.

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Note: There are varying scholarly views regarding the Xia dynasty's status as China's first dynasty. Although archaeological discoveries, particularly those associated with the Erlitou culture, have provided important evidence for a complex Bronze Age society corresponding broadly to the traditional period of the Xia, the identification of Erlitou with the Xia dynasty remains debated. There is currently no definitive contemporary written evidence independently confirming the Xia dynasty as described in later historical texts.