Another project of the Hinghwa Heritage Centre
History of Putian
蒲田的历史
Long before the arrival of Han Chinese from the north, the land that later became known as Putian was already inhabited by indigenous communities. These early settlements were concentrated particularly around the Mulan River and its estuary. As mentioned earlier, archaeologists have also discovered evidence of ancient civilisation on Nanri Island, off the coast of Putian, as well as in the Xinghua Bay area. It was in this wider region that the first Hinghwa people were later introduced to Christianity.
The ancient name of Putian was 蒲田 (Pútián). The name is recorded in the Book of Chen (Chen Shu) in connection with events in AD 564, during the Chen dynasty. In that year, the rebel Chen Baoying fled to "Putian" after his defeat and was captured there—the first appearance of the name in written records. A few years later, in AD 568 (the second year of the Guangda era), Putian County was formally established during the Chen dynasty.
The meaning and evolution of the name 莆田 have been the subject of historical discussion. The character 莆 is traditionally associated with pu, a type of grass or marsh vegetation, while 田 means field or farmland. According to a traditional explanation preserved in later local histories, the area was once characterised by waterlogged land where such vegetation grew abundantly, giving rise to the name 莆田.
Some writers have identified the vegetation described in the historical accounts with 紫菜 (zicai), commonly known as Porphyra. Others have preferred to describe it more generally as grass or marsh vegetation. The precise identification remains a matter that should be treated with care rather than presented as an established fact.
The written form of the place name also changed over time. 蒲田 eventually became 莆田, the form used today. One traditional explanation holds that the three-dot water radical was removed from 蒲 because the area had gradually been transformed from waterlogged land into farmland, while another traditional interpretation associates the change with the area's frequent flooding. Other scholars have suggested that 蒲 and 莆 were historically interchangeable characters, with 莆 simply being a simpler written form.
Thus, while the precise evolution of the name remains open to historical debate, there is broad agreement that 蒲田 is the older form of the name and that its history is closely connected with the area's former landscape of water, marshes, vegetation and farmland.
Porphyra (ZiCai) Farming
Source: Zhou Beixuan with gratitude to Lin Zhou
As much of the Putian plain was historically an estuarine and low-lying region, heavy rainfall during high tide could cause the rivers to swell and result in widespread flooding. In times of such hardship, people naturally sought explanations in the spiritual realm.
One traditional explanation focuses on the Chinese character 蒲. According to local legend, the three-dot water radical on the left of the character was associated with water and rain. It was therefore regarded as an inauspicious symbol, particularly in a region that had suffered repeated floods. The three dots were subsequently removed, and 蒲 became 莆.
Another theory holds that the character was changed after the water had been drained from the land (Liu, F. Z., 2014b). However, this explanation should be regarded as a traditional interpretation rather than an established historical fact. The precise reason for the change from 蒲 to 莆 remains debated, with some scholars suggesting that the two characters were historically interchangeable.
Whatever the precise origin of the name, what mattered most to the people was that the land became fertile and productive—something of vital importance to the farmers who depended upon it (Zhou, 2008a).
In 568 AD, during the Chen dynasty, Putian County was established, marking the beginning of Putian as an independent county-level administrative entity (Chen, C. Y., 2014a, p. 65). Historical records indicate that the county was abolished and re-established several times during the Sui and early Tang dynasties before its administration became firmly established. It was abolished in 589 AD under the Sui, re-established in 622 AD under the Tang, abolished again in 627 AD, and finally re-established in 699 AD.
According to Professor Chen, by the time the region had developed into the wider Xinghua administrative area, many villages already incorporated the character 莆 (Pú) in their names. Examples included:
Púhǎicūn (莆海村), Púshàngcūn (莆上村), Púwěicūn (莆尾村), Shāpúcūn (沙莆村), Xiàpúcūn (下莆村), Dàpúcūn (大莆村), Xiǎopúcūn (小莆村), Púxīncūn (莆心村), Gāngpúcūn (冈莆村), Dàpútián (大莆田), Shàngpúwěi (上莆尾), Púgé (莆隔), Púshàngwéi (莆上围), Púxīnpái (莆心排), Cǎopúzi (草莆子), Kēngxiàpú (坑下莆), and others.
The character 莆 therefore became deeply embedded in the geographical vocabulary of the region.
When people from Putian later migrated to other parts of China and Southeast Asia, they sometimes gave their new settlements names that recalled their ancestral homeland. Such naming practices helped preserve a sense of place, identity and cultural continuity among migrant communities. This may help explain the appearance of "Pu" in the names of settlements in places such as coastal Fujian, eastern Guangdong, and Southeast Asia.
Over the centuries, the region became associated with several names, including Xinghua (兴化), Xing'an (兴安), Puxian (莆仙), Puyang (莆阳), and Licheng (荔城), reflecting changes in administrative divisions and local usage under different dynasties.
The name Licheng (荔城) is associated with the lychee, which was once cultivated extensively in the area. Of all the names associated with Putian, it may therefore be the sweetest-sounding one—quite literally!
Beyond the naming of places, the village was also an important social unit in traditional Hinghwa life. Many villages consisted of roughly a hundred households, and villagers developed a strong sense of familiarity and mutual belonging.
A traditional expression of this spirit was:
In the Hinghwa (Puxian) dialect: "Duh lek hio li nan, nai kah yi."
我们都是同一个村。没有必要这么客气。
"We are from the same village; there is no need to be so formal with one another."
*
Putian Ancient City Entrance
Source: Author & 林洲
Water Warriors
Putian, Water and the Struggle for Survival
Putian was predominantly farmland situated in a low-lying area, where both too much and too little water could bring disaster.
During periods of heavy rain, the rivers could swell rapidly. When this coincided with a rising tide at the estuary, the resulting floods could become catastrophic. Exceptionally high water levels could inundate farmland and destroy entire crops, causing severe economic hardship for the people whose livelihoods depended on agriculture.
At the other extreme, prolonged drought could cause crops to wither and die from a lack of water, resulting in equally devastating losses.
The hardship faced by Putian's farmers drew the attention of outsiders as well. One such figure was Qian Si Niang (钱四娘), a young woman from Changle. She was passing through Putian when she witnessed the devastation caused by the floods. Moved by what she saw, she resolved to stay and address the problem.
In 1064, at the age of 16, Qian Si Niang sold her entire family estate and raised 100,000 strings of cash to build a dam on the Mulan River. She led the local people in cutting through mountains and piling stones to block the river. After three years of arduous labor, the dam was nearly complete when a catastrophic flood swept it away. In her grief and despair, Qian Si Niang threw herself into the river and drowned. She was only 19 years old.
Her sacrifice did not end the struggle. Inspired by her example, others took up the cause. Lin Congshi (林从世), a fellow native of Changle, donated his fortune and attempted to build the dam again, but he too failed. It was not until 1075 that Li Hong (李宏), assisted by the monk Feng Zhiri (冯智日), finally succeeded after eight years of labor. The Mulan Weir (木兰陂) was completed in 1083 and still stands today.
These efforts were not merely attempts to control nature. They helped transform a challenging landscape into productive farmland and laid part of the foundation for the agricultural development of Putian. The Mulan Weir is now recognized as one of China's most complete ancient irrigation systems, often called "Fujian's Dujiangyan," and was inscribed on the World Heritage Irrigation Structures list in 2014.
*
Qian Siniang (钱四娘; 1049AD – 1067AD)(Goddess of Water)
Source: Author & 林洲
Lady Qian was a native of Changle (长乐), Fujian, and came from a prominent family with a long tradition of government service. Her father held an official position in Guangdong Province. From a young age, she was said to have displayed remarkable talent and, according to traditional accounts, became widely respected for her generosity and concern for those in need.
According to legend, while escorting her father's coffin back to Changle after his death in office, Lady Qian passed through Putian and witnessed the devastation caused by flooding and the suffering of the local farmers. Deeply moved by what she saw, she returned to her hometown, sold her entire family estate, and raised 100,000 strings of cash to address the problem (Zhongguo Wenmin Wan, 2023).
Traditional accounts credit her with initiating efforts to construct a major water-control and irrigation project along the Mulan River, designed to bring water to farmland on both sides of the river.
It was a remarkable undertaking. Rather than waiting for the government to solve the problem, Lady Qian took the initiative herself, coming to Putian at the age of 16 and rallying local support and resources for the project. She paid laborers fairly—the famous saying "抓也十八，捧也十八" ("grab it and it's eighteen, scoop it and it's still eighteen") recalls her practice of paying workers eighteen cash per day, no matter how they took it. The work would eventually become associated with the Mulan Pi (木兰陂; Mùlán Bēi), one of the most important ancient irrigation and water-control projects in Putian.
The story of Lady Qian is therefore remembered not only as one of compassion, but also as an example of how an individual could inspire a community to confront the natural challenges that shaped its livelihood.
Mulan Bei Park
Source: Mulan Bei Park by Author & Lin Zhou (林洲)
The Sacrifice of Lady Qian
The dam was finally completed. But when the rains came and the upper sections of the dam began to fill with water, disaster struck. The structure suddenly collapsed.
Devastated by the failure and heartbroken that the enormous effort of the migrant workers had seemingly come to nothing, Qian Si Niang could not bear what had happened. According to the traditional account, overwhelmed by grief, she threw herself into the water and tragically lost her life at the age of nineteen.
Her selfless dedication to the people of Putian deeply touched the hearts of the villagers, who continued to revere her as a Goddess of Water (水女神) (Li, S. H., 2012). She was later officially canonized by the Song court as "Huilie Xieshun Furen" (惠烈协顺夫人), and local tradition holds that on stormy nights, two lanterns can still be seen moving along the dam—the spirit of Qian Si Niang, patrolling the weir she gave her life to build.
A nearby temple, Xieying Temple (协应庙; Xié Yìng Miào), was originally dedicated to Li Hong (李宏; Lǐ Hóng), also known as Li Zhangzhe (李长者), the man who finally succeeded in building the Mulan Weir (Zhonggong fuzhou, 2010).
In later generations, Qian Si Niang was added as an associated deity, in recognition of her role as the pioneer whose initial efforts inspired the entire project. The temple received its imperial plaque, "Xieying," in the mid-thirteenth century, and both figures were officially canonized by the Song court (Dean & Zheng, 2009, p. 15).
What makes Lady Qian's story particularly remarkable is that no one was obliged to ask her to help. She saw the suffering of the people of Putian and chose to act. She devoted her own resources and ultimately gave her life in an effort to alleviate their hardship.
Her story became a powerful symbol of selflessness and service. In later generations, many Hinghwa who had migrated to the Nanyang returned to their ancestral villages to build schools, roads and other infrastructure, and to contribute to the development of their hometowns.
Lady Qian's unfinished work also inspired others to continue the project she had begun. Several of those who subsequently contributed to Putian's water-control efforts were later honoured at temples associated with the Mulan Weir.
At a time when the contributions of women were often overlooked in historical records, the story of Qian Si Niang stands out as a remarkable example of courage, compassion and sacrifice.
Mulan Bei in Putian
Source: Author & Lin Zhou (林洲)
Walking Across the Mulan Pi
Walking across the dam was quite an experience, largely because of the optical disorientation it created. As shown in the video, one side of the dam appeared calm and still, while on the other, water rushed through with a constant roar. The striking contrast between the stillness and the movement was surprisingly disorienting.
The uneven stone surface beneath my feet added another challenge, making the crossing an experience that was both fascinating and physically demanding.
Appreciation for Lin Zhou
I extend my sincere appreciation to Guardian of Hinghwa Heritage Lin Zhou (林洲) for introducing me to this historic site and generously sharing his knowledge of Putian's history. His guidance, hospitality, and invaluable assistance made my 10-day study tour of Jiangdou (Fuqing), Putian, and Xianyou an especially meaningful and rewarding experience.
Source: Author & Lin Zhou (林洲)
Lady Qian and the Forces of Nature
As the chart shows, in 2023, the floodwaters rose to an alarming 10.57 meters, the most devastating flood in modern Putian. Even with today’s advanced technology, the flood proved impossible to contain.
Now, imagine Lady Qian and her dedicated team of helpers, using only their bare hands and primitive tools, facing such powerful forces of nature. Their courage and determination were nothing short of extraordinary.
*
FLOOD IN PUTIAN
Source: Hong Lin
From Hardship to Worship
As the picture shows, the town was inundated by floodwaters in 2023. This mirrors the hardships faced by farmers in the past, whose crops and livestock could be wiped out in an instant. It is therefore understandable that people developed a deep and lasting gratitude towards those who helped protect them and enabled their communities to survive such disasters.
Over time, this deep sense of gratitude contributed to the worship of more than a thousand figures who came to be revered as deities. Many of these figures were, in fact, real individuals who had performed extraordinary deeds during their lifetimes.
One such example is Shihui Temple, which is nearly a thousand years old. It stands as a lasting testament to the enduring reverence of the people for those who served their communities with courage, compassion, and selflessness.
圖：世惠祠 (Shihui Temple)
來源：蔡建财 (Cai Jiancai)
Temple of Gratitude
Source: Cai Jiancai
Shihui Temple
This humble temple houses the images of six revered sages who, through their efforts, saved countless lives and helped lift generations of people in ancient Putian from hardship.
In Putian, extreme weather has long wreaked havoc on the lives of farmers. Floods and droughts could destroy an entire year's crops, leading to famine and widespread suffering. At times, droughts could persist for years. To confront these twin threats, courageous sages rose to the occasion, constructing dams and ponds to control floodwaters and irrigate the land. With only primitive tools and the strength of human labour, their painstaking efforts were sometimes swept away by powerful currents.
Disaster was especially severe when torrential rain coincided with high tides and thunderstorms, magnifying the destructive force of the water. Even today, despite advanced technology and sophisticated flood-control systems, catastrophic flooding remains a formidable challenge. While the power of nature cannot be controlled, these ancient sages understood that water could be stored during times of drought and redirected during the wet season to reduce the risk of flooding and protect precious farmland.
This was the spirit that moved extraordinary sages such as He Yu (何玉), Cai Xiang (蔡襄), Liu E (刘谔), Zeng Yonghu (曾用虎), Zhang Nie (章蘖), and, later, Chen Chunming (陈春溟) to take action. They were responsible for the development of important water-management works, including Shengshou Pond (胜寿塘), Taihe Pond (太和塘), Xichong Pond (西冲塘), Tunqian Pond (屯前塘), Dong Pond (东塘), and Taiping Dam (太平陂) (Gazetteer of Putian County, n.d.).
The temple dedicated to their legacy is known as the Shihui Temple (六公祠; Liù Gōng Cí). In traditional Chinese usage, gong (公) was both a title of high rank and an honorific used to show profound respect. In this context, the title reflects the deep gratitude and reverence that the people came to hold for these sages.
Also known as Taipingpi Shihui Temple (太平陂师惠庙), the temple was built in 1132 AD and remains today as a surviving relic of the Song dynasty. It is located in Meiling Natural Village, Fenglin Village, Wutang Town, Hanjiang District, Putian City. Today, it is officially designated as a Key Cultural Relic Protection Site in Fujian Province.
All Hinghwa who return to their ancestral homeland are encouraged to visit this sacred site as a tribute to the sages whose sacrifices and ingenuity helped make survival and prosperity possible for generations of our ancestors.
Their contributions deserve to be remembered alongside those of Great Yu (大禹), the legendary king of the Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE), who is celebrated in Chinese tradition for taming the great floods of the Central Plains. These Putian sages, too, stand as timeless exemplars of courage, ingenuity, compassion, and service to their people.
Experience with the Forces of Nature
When I visited Putian in 2024, I was fortunate to experience only the outer fringe of the typhoon. Yet even at the fringe, the force of the wind was astonishing. Standing there, I could not help but wonder what it must have been like for the people of ancient Putian, who faced such forces of nature without modern engineering, machinery, or flood-control technology.
The experience gave me a much deeper appreciation of the courage and determination of the sages who devoted their lives to protecting the people and making the land habitable.
Although two years have passed, the recent Typhoon Saudel has reminded me that the threat remains very real. Hundreds of houses have collapsed, and large parts of the town have been inundated by floodwaters. Once again, nature has demonstrated the immense power that the people of Putian have had to contend with for generations.
Appreciation for Cai Jiancai
I extend my deepest appreciation to Cai Jiancai (蔡建财), a cultural and historical researcher from Fujian and Putian, for generously sharing with me his knowledge of the history of this temple and the wider history of Putian. His insights greatly enriched my study tour and deepened my understanding of this important heritage site. For his generosity, knowledge, and guidance, I am profoundly grateful.
He is also a member of the Fujian Writers Association and the Fujian Photographers Association, Deputy Secretary-General of the Putian Recitation Association, and a Council Member of the Putian Couplet Association, among other cultural and community organisations.
Ancient Administrative System
During the Spring and Warring States periods, China gradually moved away from the traditional feudal fiefdom system towards a more centrally administered system of territorial government. Under the earlier system, hereditary nobles controlled their own fiefs, which could lead to fragmented authority and competing centres of power.
The Qin state played a particularly important role in this transformation. During the reforms of Shang Yang (商鞅; c. 390–338 BCE), Qin introduced a more systematic county-based administration, with officials appointed to govern local territories rather than hereditary nobles ruling them as personal fiefdoms. These reforms strengthened central authority and laid important foundations for the administrative system later adopted throughout the Qin Empire. (Zhang, C. X., 2011)
Over the centuries, Chinese dynasties developed and modified their administrative structures. Some of the principal terms included:
-
路 (Lù, Route or Circuit): During the Song dynasty, lu was used as a major territorial administrative and supervisory division above the prefectural level. It formed part of the Song government's effort to strengthen central oversight of local administration.
-
道 (Dào, Circuit): The Tang dynasty initially divided the empire into a number of dao, principally as large-scale supervisory regions. Their number changed over time. The system evolved considerably under later dynasties.
-
州 (Zhōu, Prefecture): One of the oldest major territorial administrative terms in Chinese history. Its meaning and administrative rank changed considerably from dynasty to dynasty.
-
府 (Fǔ, Prefecture): The term fu developed as an important administrative designation from the Tang dynasty onwards. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, fu commonly functioned as a major level of administration between the province and county.
-
军 (Jūn, Military Prefecture or Military Administration): The term jun literally refers to a military establishment, but in certain periods it was also used as an administrative designation. In the Song dynasty, jun could function alongside zhou and other prefectural-level administrations.
-
县 (Xiàn, County): The county is one of the most enduring administrative units in Chinese history. Although its position within the administrative hierarchy changed over time, the county system established during the Warring States and Qin periods became a fundamental feature of Chinese local government and continues in modern China.
-
乡 (Xiāng, Township) and 村 (Cūn, Village): Xiang and cun operated at lower levels of local organisation, although their precise administrative functions varied considerably across different periods. Villages were primarily local residential communities, while xiang could function as a formal lower-level administrative unit.
-
省 (Shěng, Province): The provincial system developed during the Yuan dynasty and became the principal high-level structure of local administration. The province remains the highest-level territorial administrative division in modern mainland China.
-
Ancient Putian's Jurisdiction and Administrative Evolution
Historically, the territory associated with Putian was considerably larger than the present-day Putian urban area. At different times, Putian County included areas that today fall within Xianyou, Fuqing, and other neighbouring parts of Fujian. As administrative boundaries changed under successive dynasties, communities that had once been governed together were sometimes placed under different jurisdictions.
This helps explain why some communities that remain culturally and linguistically Hinghwa-speaking today may be located outside present-day Putian. Jiangdou (江兜), for example, was historically associated with Putian but was later incorporated into Fuqing. Administrative boundaries could change, while the language, customs, and cultural identity of local communities endured.
The following timeline provides an overview of the major stages in Putian's administrative evolution:
Timeline of Putian's Administrative Evolution
-
568 AD (circa): During the reign of Emperor Chen Fei (陈废帝), personal name Chen Bozong (陈伯宗), in the second year of the Guangda era (光大二年), Putian County was established. (Historical sources differ on the exact year of its establishment, with some records giving 567 AD and others 568 AD. Given the inconsistencies in surviving historical records, 568 AD is used here in accordance with the Putian local historical record, while the date should be regarded as approximate.)
-
589 AD: During the Sui dynasty, Putian County was re-established, although it was subsequently abolished again.
-
622 AD: During the Tang dynasty, Putian County was re-established and subsequently became part of the administrative structure of the region.
-
699 AD: During the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, Qingyuan County (清源县) was established from the western part of Putian County. In 742 AD, Qingyuan was renamed Xianyou County (仙游县).
-
711 AD: The prefecture then known as Wurong was renamed Quanzhou (泉州).
-
979 AD: During the Song dynasty, part of the territory of Putian, Xianyou, Fuqing, and Yongtai was used to establish Xinghua County (兴化县).
-
At the same time, the Taiping Jun (太平军; a Song-dynasty military-civil administration) was established to govern the Xinghua, Putian, and Xianyou counties.
-
980 AD: Taiping Army was renamed Xinghua Jun (兴化军).
-
983 AD: The administrative seat of Xinghua Jun was moved from Youyang to Putian County, where it remained for centuries. Xinghua Jun administered Putian, Xianyou, and Xinghua counties.
-
1277 AD: During the Southern Song, Xinghua Jun was renamed Xing'an Zhou (兴安州). This was the first time the wider Xinghua region was formally designated as a zhou (prefecture).
-
1278 AD: Under the Yuan dynasty, Xing'an Zhou was changed to Xinghua Lu (兴化路).
-
1369 AD: During the Ming dynasty, Xinghua Lu was changed to Xinghua Fu (兴化府).
-
1448 AD: The Ming government abolished Xinghua County. Its territory was divided between Putian and Xianyou counties.
The term Puxian (莆仙) subsequently came to represent the cultural and geographical identity shared by Putian and Xianyou. In Nanyang, migrants from Fuqing, Putian, and Xianyou were collectively referred to in some communities as FuPuXian, reflecting their shared linguistic and cultural heritage.
-
1565 AD: Xu Zhice, the magistrate of Putian, honoured the region's scholarly tradition with the inscription: “莆阳文献，海滨邹鲁” Puyang Wenxian, Haibin Zoulu. The phrase praised Putian as a land of literary and cultural achievement, likening it to Zoulu, the ancient homeland associated with Confucian learning. It later became associated with the expression: “文献名邦、海滨邹鲁” meaning, approximately, “A renowned land of culture and learning, a Zoulu by the sea.”
-
1646 AD: Following the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Puxian region resisted Qing rule and supported the Southern Ming regime under the Longwu Emperor (隆武帝).
-
1648 AD: The Qing government consolidated control over the region. Putian and Xianyou remained under Xinghua Fu, within the broader Fujian administrative system. (Liu, F. Z., 2014g)
-
1661 AD: The Qing authorities expanded the existing defensive wall in southern Putian, the area now known as Xiuyu (秀屿), creating a fortified boundary intended to isolate the local population and suppress resistance associated with Zheng Chenggong (郑成功). The wall effectively separated the people of southern Putian from the main city. According to the historical accounts preserved in local memory, the population was subjected not only to mass killings but also to deliberate isolation, with the wall used to prevent movement and supplies from reaching the area. This brutal campaign became known in Hinghwa historical memory as the Third Massacre of the Hinghwa People. Prof. Chen concurs with the massacre but states the year as 1276.
This military containment had profound consequences for the people of southern Putian and forms an important part of the tragic history of the Hinghwa people during the early Qing period.
*The author have personally visited sections of this historic wall. Standing beside it gave him a sobering sense of how a structure built as a military boundary could also become an instrument of isolation and suffering.
*
© 2026 Jason Ong. All Rights Reserved. > "Hinghwa Heritage Centre" and "Guardians of Hinghwa Heritage" are proprietary names and initiatives established for the preservation of Hinghwa culture.
No part of this website or its initiatives may be reproduced or used without explicit written permission.